![]() Cherif Bassiouni, Libya: from repression to revolution: a record of armed conflict and international law violations, 2011-2013 (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2013), pp. A coalition of states – which included Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Qatar, Spain, United Arab Emirates, UK and USA – intervened in Libya. The next step was taken on 17 March 2011, when the UNSC adopted Resolution 1973 authorizing member states to enforce a no-fly zone over Libya and to take ‘all necessary measures,’ short of foreign occupation, and notwithstanding the arms embargo mandated in UNSCR 1970, to protect civilians from the abuses committed by Gadhafi forces. On 26 February, the UNSC passed Resolution 1970 in order to impose an arms embargo and to refer the situation in Libya to the ICC. On 25 February, the UN Human Rights Council condemned violence, while an independent international Commission of Inquiry was set up. The international community reacted strongly to the events unfolding in Libya at the time. Cherif Bassiouni, Libya: from repression to revolution: a record of armed conflict and international law violations, 2011-2013 (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2013) at 125-126 and 158-159. The fighting between Gadhafi's government forces and the opposition (thuwar or revolutionaries), which includeed various tribes, militias and defected government soldiers, reached the required degree of intensity and organisation to be classified as a NIAC by late February 2011. This led to an escalation of tensions and violence that turned into a NIAC. In Libya, the protests were initially peaceful, but when the Gadhafi regime responded with violence, the resistance also turned violent, took up arms, and demanded regime change. These popular uprisings started on 15 February 2011 in Benghazi and took place in the context of what we now call the Arab Spring. The unrest followed the arrest of several lawyers representing prisoners and was inspired by the events that had led to the fall of the regimes of President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali in Tunisia and President Hosni Mubarak in Egypt shortly before. The situation that led to the onset of the conflict in 2014 originated in 2011, when political demonstrations broke out in Libya. For further information, see 'non-international armed conflict - intensity of violence' in our classification section. Various indicative factors are used to assess whether a given situation has met the required intensity threshold, such as the number, duration, and intensity of individual confrontations the types of weapons and military equipment used the number of persons and types of forces participating in the fighting the number of casualties the extent of material destruction the number of civilians fleeing and the involvement of the United Nations Security Council. For further information, see 'non-international armed conflict' in our classification section. Government forces are presumed to satisfy the criteria of organization. Second, in every non-international armed conflict, at least one side to the conflict must be a non-state armed group which must exhibit a certain level of organization in order to qualify as a party to the non-international armed conflict. Two criteria need to be assessed in order to answer the question whether a situation of armed violence amounts to a non-international armed conflict.įirst, the level of armed violence must reach a certain degree of intensity that goes beyond internal disturbances and tensions. With regard to other foreign interventions, while Turkey is involved in the conflict in support of the GNA, France and United Arab Emirates are involved in NIAC in support of the LNA. Upon request of the UN-backed Government of Libya, the United States launched a sustained air campaign against the Islamic State group in August 2016 and continues to support the GNA The self-declared LNA and affiliated groups loyal to General Haftar, that supports the (HoR) fights against Islamic State and is also engaged in separate conflicts against other armed groups including Derna Protection Force (DPF) and The Benghazi Revolutionaries Shura Council (BRSC) The GNA is also fighting against groups pledging allegiance to the Islamic State that is gaining control over Derna and Sirte in 2015 ![]() The UN-backed Government of National Accord (GNA) is engaged in a non-international armed conflict with the self-declared LNA and affiliated groups loyal to General Haftar, who are aligned with the House of Representatives (HoR) The non-international armed conflicts emerged in Libya along the following lines: There are multiple and overlapping non-international armed conflicts in Libya involving the Government and a myriad of armed groups.
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